Irén Vágó – Vilmos Vass

Chapter 5
The content of education

Hungary is in the process of developing a mixed system of regulating the content of education: on the one hand, it relies on a highly flexible tool of input regulation (National Core Curriculum), and on the other hand, it applies a dual system of output evaluation, which consists of a more stringent secondary school final examinations component and a less demanding competence assessment component. By the mid-1990s, ongoing innovation and self-development at the level of schools coupled with the decentralization efforts of educational policy resulted in an increasingly bipolar system of content regulation. The 1999 amendment of the Act on Public Education introduced frame curricula, thereby creating a three-tier system. The first level is the National Core Curriculum (NCC) (as to the other levels, see later in this chapter). While the National Core Curriculum does not directly regulate teaching and learning processes at the level of schools, it is a key document in that it provides a basis for professionals involved in local curriculum educational programme and package development, authors of textbooks, educational policy makers, administrators and the public at large.

5.1. Changes in the regulation of the content of education in Hungary

5.1.1. Level 1 of content regulation: the National Core Curriculum (NCC)

The NCC was revised in 2002-2003. Published in 2003, the new NCC retained its strategic feature as a basic curriculum while at the same time its developmental function was strengthened. The new National Core Curriculum consists of three main structural components. The introduction describes its general values and principles of education. This is followed by the priority development tasks (cross-curricular fields): these are interdisciplinary areas and competencies that must be developed in all cultural domains. The third part contains the development tasks of the cultural domains, i.e. the knowledge and key competencies to be mastered in each segment of schooling. The new NCC defines the development tasks in the priority and cultural domains to be met by the end of grades 4, 6, 8 and 12 of public education. It also offers recommendations regarding the allocation of curricular time expressed in percentages of total contact time.

The system of content regulation

Source: Vass, 2003

5.1.2. Level 2 of content regulation

Accredited frame curricula – the accreditation process

The new NCC does not set forth detailed requirements or cultural standards. Rather than directly regulating school practices, one of its tasks is to provide guidance to developers of frame curricula. Several accredited frame curricula have been developed for each school type and they offer coherent curricular alternatives overarching all of the cultural domains for at least one educational cycle. Frame curricula also have the new task to promote the implementation of the NCC, to support local curriculum development at schools, and to offer contents-related guidance for developers of educational programmes as well as for authors and publishers of textbooks. In late 2003 the minister for education invited projects to promote the supply of frame curricula that are adapted to the new NCC. Applicants were required to submit for accreditation frame curricula that encompassed all cultural domains of full educational cycles, i.e. grades 1-4 and 5-8 of general schools, grades 9–10 of vocational training schools and grades 9–12 (or 13) of secondary schools as well as the full educational cycle of six-grade and eight-grade secondary schools. Seventeen frame curricula were evaluated, three were rejected, two alternative frame curricula were approved with the authors retaining their copyright and thus their right to control of adaptation, and 12 were promulgated with no such restriction.

Educational programmes and packages

An educational programme or package is a complex set of tools that serve for the implementation of the teaching/learning process having a particular goal. In addition to different teaching aids it also includes tools that support the planning, organization and evaluation of the process. Its main function is to support teaching/learning processes by showing ways and procedures that lead to particular goals. An educational package consists of the following:

• Pedagogical concept (trends, theories, concepts, fundamental principles, target group, desired outcome);
• Programme curriculum (goals, syllabi, requirements, subject/s, number of lessons;
• Modules (objectives, time frame, area of use, professional and pedagogical background, variations, recommended processing methods, evaluation, sources);
• Support (textbooks, worksheets, traditional and electronic tools, visual aids);
• Evaluation component (assessment of pupils/students, evaluation of educational programme or package);
• Support services (Internet forum, information, database of good practices).

Along with the implementation of the National Core Curriculum, and underpinning its goals, Measures of the Human Resource Development Operative Programme under the National Development Plan (NDP) were launched. They are aimed at promoting the skills development goals of the National Core Curriculum in the following areas of competency: reading and expression, mathematics, foreign language, ICT, social skills, lifestyle and environment, and career development. The programme titled “Establishment of Regional School and Pre-school Development Centres to Propagate Competency-based Teaching/Learning Programmes” was also launched. Schools and professional service providers can apply to join the programme as consortium leaders.

Three major types of programmes are being developed, tested and subsequently adjusted in each of the above areas of competency during the period 2004–2008. The first is a package that entirely covers the cultural domain most closely related to the particular competency or partially covers several cultural domains whose contents are related to the particular competence. The second type is a cross-curricular package that offers modules to develop the particular competency integrated into materials of other cultural domains. The third package is a set of extracurricular modules. The packages lay down the algorithm of teachers' and students' pathways in sorting materials, organizing learning and promotional evaluation in the particular area of competency, primarily by module descriptions.

5.1.3. Level 3 of content regulation: pedagogical programmes and local curricula of schools

There have been numerous changes in the school educational programmes and local curricula of schools in recent years. The amendment of the Public Education Act provided that pedagogical programmes should be supplemented by health and environmental education, the rules of student progress assessment, and the principles and limits of setting written and oral homeworks. These changes brought new contents in the local curricula including health promotion, consumer protection, environmental protection traffic education, crime prevention in society, victimology, knowledge of non-violent conflict resolution techniques, and preparation for the application of modern information and communication technologies. (See also Chapter 2.)

5.1.4. The secondary school final examination

Designed to regulate output, the new system of secondary school final examination is the most important tool of content regulation. The main significance of the new secondary school final examination system is that it replaces higher educational entrance examinations. It also has two new functions: it may provide a state language proficiency certificate and an ECDL.

In terms of its impact on the content of education, the special significance of the new secondary school final examination is that it provides explicit and standard requirements, sets of development task and evaluation criteria. Furthermore, it has succeeded in reducing teaching material in some areas, and promoted in-depth and intensive processing of the reduced contents. It pays special attention to reading literacy and interpretation, modelling, problem solving, verbalization of visual information, and construction of visual charts and figures from texts and data.

5.1.5. The basic examination

The term and description of the basic examination proposed at the end of the 10th grade and designed to measure students' acquisition of general culture is described in some detail in the 1996 Amendment of the Act on Public Education. Since its inception the basic examination has been in the centre of debates. The 2003 Amendment of the Public Education Act made the basic examination an optional local examination in vocational training schools, vocational secondary schools and general secondary schools, taken in the school in centrally determined subjects based on the requirements defined in the school's local curriculum. Thus the basic examination has ceased to be uniform and compulsory. Nevertheless, problems regarding the content and assessment of general knowledge subjects in grades 9 and 10 of the currently rather dysfunctional vocational training schools still prevail.

5.2. Content changes in the different areas of public education

5.2.1. Pre-primary education

The professional activities of the two early childhood educational institutions – the day-nurseries for children up to the age of 3 and pre-schools for children aged 3–6 (7) (see Chapter 4) – were not built upon each other earlier. There is an increasing demand for the harmonization of the educational programmes (National Core Programme of Nursery Care and National Core Programme of Pre-primary Education) of these institutions as more and more multifunctional, integrated institutions, day-nursery – pre-schools, have been established in small regions of Hungary since 2002.

The National Core Programme of Nursery Care is about to be published. Its content and structure are fully aligned with the National Core Programme of Pre-primary Education. This new tool will ensure smooth regulation of the content of education in early childhood, thus there is a better chance for uniform developmental principles for the age group 0–6 in the two types of institution.

A separate pre-primary package has been developed in the context of the Human Resource Development Operational Programme of the NDP. The package is supplemented by so-called skills development cards designed to help pre-school teachers development work. Testing of the main elements of the package started in September 2005 in the Regional School and Pre-school Development Centres. (See also Chapter 4.)

5.2.2. General school education and secondary education

As of the 2003-04 academic year the government reduced the number of compulsory lessons per day in grades 1, 5 and 9, to be extended progressively to the other grades. As the law sets the weekly number of non-compulsory lessons as a percentage of compulsory lessons, the number of non-compulsory lessons also decreased. The Ministry of Education decided the task of determining the distribution of the 2.5-hour reduction across subjects should be within the school's competence. Reduced lesson numbers exacerbated by a steady decline in the number of pupils and students may cause major teacher employment problems at an institutional level.

Reduction in the number of lessons further widened the gap between Hungary and the OECD annual average number of lessons in primary education. Conversely, with an unusually high rate of elective subjects the average number of lessons in Hungarian secondary schools is far higher than the OECD average.

Table 5.1. Annual number of hours per year of total instruction time* in Hungary and the OECD average in grades for 7–8, 9–11, 12–14 and 15-year-olds, 2004

Country	Age
	7–8 years	9–11 years	12–14 years	15 years
Hungary	611	718	950	1106
OECD countries average	786	839	932	955

Source: Education at a Glance, 2006.
* Compulsory and non-compulsory
Note: Lessons have been converted to 60-minute periods.

In addition to content regulation, the educational administration uses other tools to promote the mastery of basic skills and competencies in general school. In grades 1-3 narrative assessment has been made mandatory and it is no longer possible to repeat grades in primary phase of general school. Special criteria have been developed for the approval of primers with a view of slowing down and deepening skills development in the initial phase of teaching. By amending the Public Education Act the government extended the foundational stage of general school education. In grades 5 and 6, instead of teaching special subjects 25 to 40% of the compulsory contact hours are used for deepening the basic skills. Essentially, these changes meant the inclusion of a two-year transitional period that makes it easier for pupils to progress from a single teacher system to a multi-subject, multi-teacher system.

5.2.3. Upper secondary level vocational training

After the introduction of the National Core Curriculum in 1998, which shifted vocational training after 16 years of age and in most cases after grade 10, the fundamental structure of school-based vocational training was developed by 2002 in vocational training schools and by 2003-2004 in vocational secondary schools. From the 2005-06 academic year the duration of education has been increased from 2+2 (i.e.: 2 prevocational + 2 vocational grades) to 2+3 years in several trades absorbing large numbers of students. The consequence of this measure is that every second of vocational student spends five years in secondary vocational training only learning a single trade and without taking the secondary school final examination. Those who want to learn a trade that also requires a secondary school leaving certificate will have to go on studying for three more years, and in another one or two years they can take a vocational examination. Thus after 9-10 years of secondary studies they enter the labour market only at the age of 25.

There was an intensive content development effort supported by the Vocational Training School Development Programme (VTDSP) between 2003 and 2006. In the absence of the basic examination after grade 10 vocational training schools that tend to set largely differing requirements in grades 9-10 (i.e. the pre-vocational grades) will intensively use the curricula developed for 10 cultural domains in 12 trade groups in Component ‘A' of the Programme. In the context of Component ‘B' so-called central programmes (curricula) were developed in 25 vocational qualifications for the vocational training grades. However, the problem is that the new central programmes cannot be used in their current format in the long run as they are not modular in structure, unlike the National Register of Vocational Qualifications. A serious shortcoming of the recommended curricula of trades with increased duration of training is the absence of lessons allocated for foreign language teaching in the vocational training grades. Component ‘C' of VTDSP contains the teaching materials and methodological recommendations for the compensatory grade aimed at the most underprivileged young people who have not completed the eight-grade general school. The implementation of the development programme is supported by a number of further training programmes and conferences for teachers but for the time being the use of frame curricula and central programmes is hindered by the absence of related textbooks, teaching aids, etc. (See also Chapter 4.)

With a view of more efficient use of resources and capacities and in order to develop a more cost effective system of vocational training institutions the government envisioned creating a network of Regional Integrated Vocational Training Centres. Members of the network, eight schools on an average in each Centre will closely cooperate to harmonize or integrate their management systems and distribute tasks. In this way the integrated organization will be able to introduce modular training and will function as a practice-oriented basis for vocational training, and will strengthen practical training in every region.

5.2.4. Arts education

Arts education is an integral part of public education in Hungary despite the fact that compulsory schooling cannot be met solely through art education. Most children involved in basic arts education go to arts basic schools that are independent from the system of educational institutions. Arts schools fall into two groups. The first includes music schools and arts schools providing teaching in several branches of arts maintained by local governments; the second group is that of non-municipal art schools, which have been mushrooming over the years. Tuition in arts schools is not free but it is heavily subsidized by the state through normative support. As per capita subsidies have doubled or, in some areas tripled, since the late 1990s general schools have found a vested interest in starting arts teaching. This generally met parents' approval and ultimately resulted in municipalities' granting school's request to expand their profile. The arts education market emerging from the turn of the millennium gained strength by the 2004-05 academic year. By today more than half of the programmes are offered on an entrepreneurial basis with the exception of instrumental music teaching, which is very expensive due to the high costs of instruments. However, boosting pupil numbers did not go hand in hand with involving highly qualified teachers in arts education. What triggered the expansion of arts education was the need for general schools and their maintainers to engage school capacities left unused in the wake of the unfavourable demographic trends. A management inspection conducted in 2002-2003 unveiled numerous irregularities and problems. Learning from the experience, the Ministry of Education developed a draft decree with the help of the arts organizations for the supervision and professional qualification of institutions taking up arts education. Normative allocations to basic arts education will be significantly reduced as of the 2006-07 academic year, by 23.8% in music and by 47.5% in other arts, in order to keep the increase in the number of pupils within reasonable limits.

5.2.5. Special needs education (SEN)

In Hungary a student requires special needs education if according to the official opinion of the competent expert and rehabilitation committee s/he is severely hindered in the education process. The law also provides for certain special forms of support, for example integrative education, extended to students who do not fall within the scope of special educational needs (SEN) but are at a disadvantage. The Public Education Act sets forth detailed provisions with respect to the right of special needs children to early development and special education in conformity with their disabilities. Education of the growing number of SEN pupils (whose rate in general schools is almost 7%) is undertaken partly by special educational institutions (pre-schools, general schools, special vocational training schools and special vocational training schools for skills development), and partly by special education forms in the majority educational institutions. (See also Chapter 9.)

Chart 5.1. The rate of mainstreamed SEN children and youth by disability, 2004-05

Source: Kőpataki, 2006
Note: Pupils and students seen by the competent specialist board

With the exception of pre-school education the number of mainstreamed SEN pupils/students had traditionally been rather low at all levels and in all programme types even at the turn of the millennium. The educational administration that took office in 2002 has taken a number of measures to promote mainstreaming. Because of the dwindling child population, majority educational institutions were more willing to integrate SEN pupils, who count double or triple towards the class headcount and are entitled to higher normative support. The new measures resulted in a dynamic increase in the number of mainstreamed SEN children, from 21.6% in the 2001-02 school year to 42.0%, almost double, in three years.

Table 5.2. Numbers and rates of mainstreamed SEN children by educational cycle and programme type out of the total number of SEN students, 2004-2005

		Total SEN	Mainstreamed	Mainstreamed (%)
Pre-school		5,746	4,317	75.1
General school		56,922	24,067	42.3
Secondary total		11,809	2,874	24.3
	Vocational training	2,011	1,617	80.4
	Special voc. training	8,369	0	0.0
	General secondary	681	509	74.7
	Vocational secondary	748	748	100.0
SEN total		74,477	31,258	42.0

Source: MoE Statistics, calculations of Irén Vágó based on the data of the 2004-2005 Year Book on Education

Currently, the vast majority of Hungarian educational institutions carry out what can be termed ‘cold mainstreaming'. Teaching does not go beyond providing SEN children with the technical facilities indispensable for their learning including, in fortunate cases, habilitation and rehabilitation lessons headed by a special education teacher as prescribed by law. In terms of methods, requirements, textbooks, teaching materials and school premises, education is in no way suited to the special needs nor the physical and mental state of SEN children. Mainstreaming or integration is often entirely missing from the deeds of establishment of institutions, sometimes from the educational programme and more often from the local curricula. Teachers are not aware of the guidelines and curricula of pre-school and school age SEN children, they are not familiar with the special development tools, games and books. The segregated special education institutions for the time being are far better suited to SEN children's needs than integrative education in the mainstream ones.

When developing their educational programme schools may apply the provisions of the NCC in accordance with local needs, the guidelines of education of students with special needs and the accredited local frame curricula.

5.2.6. Minority education

The institutions of minority education have been created at all levels of the educational system including both types of secondary schools. In majority schools and pre-school institutions minority education is provided through special minority classes. (See also Chapter 4.) The maintainer is obliged by law to start a minority programme in the context of regular education in cases where at least eight parents so require. If the number of applicants is less than eight minority children must have access to extra-curricular minority language classes in the school.

A long-term feature of minority education is that it loses 85-90% of students in each age group in secondary education. This is due to the fact that parents want to improve their children's opportunities in the labour market by sending them to a majority secondary school after the eight-grade general school.

Another lasting characteristic is that of the three types of minority educational programmes available – i.e. total immersion, where the language of teaching in exclusively the minority mother tongue; partial immersion, where education is bilingual; and teaching of the minority language as a modern foreign language – total immersion has been drastically declining. This is probably due to the fact that although this type of education is considerably more expensive the supplementary normative support awarded to it is the same as that of bilingual education, where only three of the subjects must be taught in the minority language. A major problem of minority education is the uneven supply of textbooks in terms of both languages and subjects: even the minorities with the biggest student population have subjects where not a single textbook is available in the minority language.

5.3. Foreign language learning

5.3.1. Foreign language learning, foreign language teaching policy in Hungary

According to the latest Eurobarometer poll conducted in 2005 Hungary shares the last place with the United Kingdom out of 25 European countries in terms of foreign language skills. Hungary has been unable to move up the list despite the fact that between 1990 and 2000 the rate of foreign language speakers doubled according to the census, and the same was indicated by Eurobarometer's representative survey for the period 1995–2005. The number of speakers of foreign languages doubled mainly because of the advancement of English: as a result, the traditional dominance of German has disappeared and the number of English speakers equals that of German speakers.

Table 5.3. Foreign languages spoken by the Hungarian adult (15+) population and rate of foreign language speakers according to the census and European* opinion research, 1990, 1995, 2001 and 2005 (%)

Languages spoken	Census	Eurobarometer	Census	Eurobarometer
	1990	1995	2001	2005
German	4.9	8	9.9	16
English	2.5	6	9.8	16
Russian	1.7	3	1.9	2
French	0.6	–	1.1	–
Italian	0.2	–	0.6	–
Other**	3.2	–	3.1	1
Total	10.2	17*	26.6	35
FL speakers***	9.1	14	19.2	29

Source: CSO, Eurobarometer.
* Eurobarometer is the biggest opinion research in the European Union polling the 25 member states on a monthly basis. Eurobarometer data are purely informative as questions were related to the three most widely spoken languages.
** Other languages mainly included minority languages spoken in Hungary.
*** Some of the FL speakers speak two or more foreign languages.

Hungary is lagging far behind not only the developed countries but also for instance the Visegrád Countries (Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland and Hungary). Comparing only the two most widely spoken European foreign languages (English and German), the gap is not so dramatic: the two languages are jointly spoken by 55% in the Czech Republic, 44% in Poland, but only 28% in Slovakia as opposed to 32% in Hungary. Conversely, 20-25% of the foreign language speakers speak Russian in the other three countries as opposed to only 2% in Hungary despite the fact that the generations above 35 years of age spent 6-10 years learning Russian.

Since assuming office in 2002 the new educational administration have been striving to close the gap by means of a lot more active foreign language teaching policy than its predecessors. Improving the quality of foreign language teaching is one of the highest priorities. A foreign language strategy titled World–Language consisting of several programmes and projects has been developed. Its main components are the World–Language funding scheme, the inclusion of a foreign language preparatory year in secondary schools (the so-called 'zero grade', which to some extent changes the school structure in secondary education), and foreign language programme development. The goal of foreign language preparation in the zero grade is to provide an increasing number of secondary school students with advanced knowledge of a foreign language and a basic or intermediate level knowledge of another foreign language. A priority goal is to provide access to advanced foreign language learning in the context of public education for students whose parents cannot afford extra-curricular out-of-school foreign language acquisition. However, the latter goal has not been met as the majority (57%) of schools select students for the foreign language preparatory year on the basis of an admission test or their achievement in general school. Moreover, this form of language learning is not at all available for approximately 25% of this age group, i.e. the most underprivileged children who continue their studies in vocational training schools.

Foreign language preparatory grade may be launched with the maintainer's approval in any language (including minority languages) if the general or vocational secondary school undertakes 1) to prepare students for a higher level secondary school final examination in the foreign language; and 2) at least 40% of the 27.5-hour compulsory weekly teaching time is spent with intensive language teaching at least 25% is used for ICT teaching and the rest for skills development.

Measure, “Development of skills and competencies necessary for lifelong learning” of the Human Resource Development Operative Programme of the NDP sets the context for the development of foreign language contents and content carriers. In the 2005-06 school year, testing of English, French and German language teaching packages developed for grades 5, 7 and 9 started in more than 100 institutions. English and German programmes are being developed for vocational training schools in the context of Measure of the Human Resource Development Operative Programme , “Content, methodological and structural development of vocational training” and the “Vocational training school development programme”.

5.3.2. The current status of foreign language teaching

Hungary cannot boast of long traditions of early institutional foreign language teaching. New methodologies are being developed at present. With the exception of bilingual institutions foreign language lessons are not integrated into pre-school development but are, for the most part, offered as special courses. We hardly have any reliable data regarding pre-school language teaching.

The proportion of pupils learning foreign languages in general schools has been steadily increasing since the 2001-02 school year reaching about 70% of all pupils. Increasing numbers of pupils involved in early language learning (in grades 1–3) and of those enrolled in bilingual education coupled with a decreasing number of children exempted from foreign language learning will further enhance foreign language teaching indicators.

Table 5.4. Indicators of foreign language learning in full-time general school education in the school years 1992-1993, 1998-1999, 1999-2000, 2001-2002 and 2004-2005

Indicator	1992/ 1993	1998/ 1999	1999/ 2000	2001/ 2002	2002/ 2003	2003/ 2004	2004/ 2005
Pupils total	1,071,727	973,326	969,755	944,244	930,386	909,769	887,785
FL learners	609,231	695,594	699,808	625,730	636,030	623,319	619,368
Rate of FL learners (%)	66.2	71.5	72.2	66.3	68.4	68.5	69.8

Source: Calculations by Irén Vágó based on the 1992-1993 Statistics of the Ministry of Education and Culture, from
1998-1999 MoE Statistics, and the 2004-2005 Year Book on Education.
Note: Students learning several foreign languages are included in the table more than once. From 2001-2002 general school figures do not include data of grades 5-8 of the six-grade and eight-grade secondary schools but includes SEN children learning foreign languages.

Table 5.5. Changes in the number of foreign language learners and number of foreign languages per student in full-time secondary education in 1992-93 and between the 2001-02 and 2004-05

Indicator	Years
	1992/93	2001/02	2002/03	2003/04	2004/05
Secondary schools without vocational training schools
Number of students	322,954	420,889	426,301	438,668	438,668
Number of FL learners*	406,191	565,997	585,154	597,391	599,436
Average number of languages per learner	1.3	1.3	1.4	1.4	1.4
Secondary schools with vocational training schools
Number of students	511,524	544,840	549,642	561,526	562,071
Number of FL learners	431,098	648,300	676,100	690,132	570,440
Average number of languages per learner	0.8	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2

Source: Calculations by Irén Vágó based on the 1992-1993 Statistics of the Ministry of Education and Culture, from
2001-2002 MoE Statistics, and the 2004-2005 Year Book on Education.
* Students learning more than one foreign language are included more than once.

The expansion of foreign language learning has slowed down in secondary schools partly because a second foreign language is no longer compulsory in vocational secondary schools, and partly because language teaching in vocational training schools, gradually introduced from 1998, has by now become general only in grades 9-10 (the general knowledge phase of education) and continues only sporadically in the vocational training grades 11-13. Conclusion of foreign language learning at the end of grade 10 deteriorates the efficiency of language acquisition of vocational certificate holders.

5.3.3. Conditions for language learning

Many of the main conditions for foreign language learning have been laid down in different regulatory documents, for example the minimum weekly number of lessons, the latest time of starting foreign language teaching, the number of languages per school type and the qualification of language teachers. This with the intent to provide a somewhat unified access to, and quality of, foreign language teaching within the public education system.

An important advancement is the very substantial reduction in the number of non-qualified language teachers achieved parallel with an increase in their overall numbers. Previously, increasing the number of students in language teacher training had little or no effect on the supply of qualified language teachers. The improvement is mainly due to shrinking opportunities of language teachers in the labour market (teachers are pushed out of the private sector and the language teaching market has become saturated). The 50% increase in teachers' salaries also had a positive impact. As a result, the rate of non-qualified language teachers in general and vocational secondary schools is less than 1%, and in general schools and vocational training schools it is under 7%.

5.4. Digital literacy in public education

In the spring of 2004 the Ministry of Education published its ICT strategy. The strategy is aimed at creating an educational information technology network, tools and ICT education methodologies that are in line with the demands of a knowledge-based society, support the work of students and teachers involved in public and higher education, and promote the introduction of information systems that support the optimal utilization of public and other resources available for education.

Improvement of digital literacy is also priority goal under the Human Resource Development Operative Programme of the NDP. Programme 3.1 on laying the basis of lifelong learning embraces ICT competencies from cultural domains as well as a cross-curricular approach. Digitalization of various elements of the educational packages has been started.

5.4.1. ICT hardware

In order to bridge the “digital gap” in access to ITC in the home the government launched School Net Express (Sulinet Express) programme in 2003 that provided a tax incentive for buyers of ICT devices. While the programme contributed to upgrading home computers it did not substantially increase computer penetration in families, hence Hungary did not manage to catch up with the developed countries to the desired extent. Following the proposal of the Ministry of Finance the Ministry of Education modified the School Net Programme in the autumn of 2005 to promote private individuals' purchase of desktop configurations and laptops only.

By the turn of the millennium Hungarian educational institutions replaced and functionally upgraded their computer hardware and Internet connection was widely developed. In the context of development programmes the types and minimum technical parameters of hardware were standardized.

Several major funding schemes promoted the level of equipment of Hungarian education institutions. Launched by the Ministry of Informatics and Communications Public Net Programme (Közháló Program) provided all public institutions including schools with broadband Internet access. In 2004–2005, 600 secondary schools were awarded wireless networks, which boosted Internet access. The Ministry of Education launched a long-term ICT development programme for public education in 2005. Its goals include development of the ICT infrastructure of educational institutions, upgrading hardware, and installation of school administration software. The programme is supported from the national budget. In 2005 a new type of normative support was introduced for ICT purposes, specifically for purchasing hardware and administration software.

In the context of Measure 2.3 of the RDOP of the NDP a scheme was launched in 2003 with the support of the European Regional Development Fund titled Infrastructure development of pre-school institutions and general schools. It was aimed at closing the gap in the quality of education in backward micro-regions by promoting infrastructure in pre-school and primary educational institutions, particularly in villages with large underprivileged and Roma populations. Infrastructure development should serve the following purposes: (1) enhancement of the quality and efficiency of teaching and dissemination of ITC technologies in general schools; (2) ensuring equal opportunities and promoting integrated education; (3) expansion of availability of pre-school institutions.

The above processes contributed to an increase, between 2003 and 2005, in the number of computer using pupils/students and teachers using the Internet for teaching purposes.

Table 5.6. Computer and Internet use by types of institution, 2003/04–2004/05

Type of institution	Initial number of computers	Number of computers with Internet connection	Number of computer using pupils/ students	Number of teachers using the Internet for educational purposes	Number of teachers with some IT qualifications
Pre-school institutions
2003-04	2,421	596	6,398	151	1,139
2004-05	2,956	811	15,514	254	2,001
General schools
2003-04	58,991	28,446	498,135	9,716	22,038
2004-05	65,086	38,663	511,180	12,450	25,916
Vocational training schools
2003-04	12,976	9,242	89,075	1,660	1,775
2004-05	14,523	11,038	94,629	2,054	2,226
Special vocational training schools
2003-04	1,089	566	4,559	123	188
2004-05	1,285	790	5,871	196	253
General secondary schools
2003-04	21,819	18,712	162,194	4,408	5,548
2004-05	24,866	22,024	179,204	6,400	6,620
Vocational secondary schools
2003-04	52,491	40,842	236,139	5,854	6,635
2004-05	56,714	46,901	238,026	7,193	7,978

Source: Calculations by Erika Garami based on the MoE 2003/04 and 2004/05 educational statistics database

Notwithstanding the massive hardware development there was no change in the use of ICT devices in school practice. A nationwide survey conducted in 2003 pointed out that ICT devices are only used in ICT lessons and not at all in the teaching of general knowledge subjects. According the estimates, regular ICT use in the learning process is below 1%. The findings of a survey by the National Institute of Public Education was likewise negative, pointing out that only a few percent of secondary school students use ICT frequently for learning purpose. Teachers reported disproportionate lesson numbers and teaching materials as well as underdeveloped IC infrastructure to be the main reason for poor ICT use (particularly in general schools) besides poor student skills, and only few of them consider a cross-curricular approach important. On the other hand, this approach has been gaining ground in general schools, reaching a better-than-average level of acceptance (2.81 on a five-grade scale), which is cause for some optimism.

5. 5. The infrastructure of education

5.5.1. The physical environment of education

According to a survey conducted in 2001, 40% of the pre-school and school buildings were built between the two World Wars and 13% were erected almost a hundred years ago. These buildings have become obsolete in terms of their exterior, internal space and lighting. It is therefore not surprising that maintaining entities take every opportunity, including invitation of projects and extending preferential credit schemes, to involve state and EU funds in the renewal of these institutions.

The magnitude of needs is indicated by the 83 projects amounting to over 72 billion forints in total submitted under Measure 4.1 of the Human Resource Development Operative Programme titled “Development of the infrastructure of education and training”. So far 31 schools and pre-school institutions were awarded funds in excess of 22 billion forints. Measure 4.1.1 on “Creation and infrastructure development of integrated regional vocational training centres” seems to give rise to developments of a similar magnitude. Under this Measure 38 institutions applied for almost 29 billion forints, of which 16 were awarded a total of over 11 billion forints.

Measure 2.3 of the Regional Development Operative Programme (RDOP) also invited projects to develop the infrastructure of public education institutions. Out of almost 650 projects submitted by pre-school institutions and schools to the amount of almost 80 billion forints 104 were awarded 13.7 billion, each of them operating in backward micro-regions, and each of them having more than 50% of their pupils receiving regular educational allowance.

The programme titled Investment into the School of the 21st Century under the Second NDP continues according to schedule. By 2013 it envisions “funds to be allocated to 1500 schools for making their buildings accessible for people with disabilities, to 2600 schools to upgrade their lighting systems, to 3000 schools to develop environmentally friendly heating systems, to 1500 schools to renew their buildings, and to 200 schools for complex renewal projects.” Up to the first quarter of 2006 the Hungarian Development Bank signed long-term low-interest loan agreements with 100 educational institutions in the context of Investment into the School of the 21st Century amounting to a total of 5.575 billion forints.

5.5.2. Educational tools and devices

The standards of educational tools and devices used in Hungary are set forth in the Register of Educational Tools and Devices published in 1998. Newly established educational institutions have to immediately observe the standards since their inception or the commencement of their operation. In the case of already existing institutions maintainers were granted a grace period until 31 July 2000 to prepare a schedule of implementation of the (minimum) standards of educational tools and devices laid down in the Register by 31 August 2003. As many of the maintaining entities were unable to meet the deadline after the 2003 amendment of the Public Education Act the National Public Education Evaluation and Examination Centre could grant permission, upon the maintainer's request, in the context of an official procedure for the school to meet the required standards by 31 August 2008 at latest.

5.6. Textbooks and the textbook market

The Act on the Rules of the Textbook Market was passed in 2001. Amended by the Act on the Budget of 2003 it provides for free textbook supply, similarly to the 2003 amendment of the Public Education Act. In 2004 the Minister of Education promulgated a Decree on the Detailed Rules of Approval of Textbooks, of Textbook Supply and Subsidy. One of the most debated aspects of the 2006 amendment of the Decree was that it set quantified limits to some of the criteria in the assessment of textbooks for approval.

With the disappearance of the state's monopoly in publishing textbooks (1992) the last state-owned publisher, Nemzeti Tankönyvkiadó, was privatized in 2004. Foreign publishers have become stronger in the Hungarian market through establishing subsidiaries in Hungary or buying out, or buying shares in, smaller Hungarian publishing companies. A publishing house is only allowed to regularly engage in textbook publication if it is a registered member of the Hungarian Guild of Textbook Publishers. Currently there are 113 registered textbook publishers, however, 26% did not publish accredited textbooks in the 2004-05 academic year. The stability of the market is indicated by the fact that for years the same 10 or 12 publishers have had more than 1% share each of a highly dynamically increasing market.

The minister of education caps prices annually. Under the Public Education Act books can go on the register of approved textbooks once they have been qualified and their price does not exceed the maximum price per printed sheet set for the category of textbook (taking into consideration volume, colour printing, type of cover, binding, etc.).

5.6.1. Accreditation and subsidy of textbooks

Besides being the most important tool for quality assurance, accreditation, i.e. approval by the state, also provides orientation for the textbook market as it emerged after the political changeover. Quality assurance is substantially hampered by the freedom of schools to use textbooks that have not been submitted for accreditation, or were rejected. According to expert opinion, 25-30% of the textbooks and other books used by schools have not been accredited.

Since the 2003-04 school year the government has provided free textbooks on a needs basis. Students suffering from long-term illness or disability, or living in families with three or more children, or supported by a single parent are eligible. Irrespective of the school type at all levels of public education free textbook supply has been gradually extended to students from families with one or two children that receive regular child protection allowance. From the 2006-07 school year eligibility has also included private students involved in special needs education and students participating in supplementary minority education. It is estimated that about half of all students receive free textbooks. Over a period of three years, providing textbooks free of charge to all needy students tripled the expenditure on textbooks in the national budget, exceeding seven billion forints or 0.038% of the annual GDP since 2004.

Chart 5.2. Textbook subsidy in Mn HUF and in percentage of the GDP, 1998–2005

Source: Acts on the Budget, and calculations by Irén Vágó based on CSO data
* Budget estimate, no settlement of accounts data available.

According to analysts, the influx of public funds stoked up the textbook market. While the only year when the increase in average textbook prices exceeded the inflation rate was when a 5% VAT was imposed, since the introduction of free textbooks publishers pocketed a 50% increase in their sales. Extended support has evidently moved schools to spend more and order a lot more textbooks. Mounting demands are clearly illustrated by the average number of textbooks per children, which rose by 46%, from 8.4 to 12.3 over a period of three years.

In an effort to curb public spending and demand for textbooks the educational administration abrogated the general normative support on textbooks with effect from the 2006-07 school year, and at the same time increased the needs-based normative support to a uniform 10,000 forints. This is more than the current price of textbook packages in primary education. Doing away with the general normative support on textbooks is expected to reduce public spending on textbooks by almost 10%.

5.6.2. Choice of textbooks by schools

Amendments in the legal regulations shaping textbook choice and supply after the turn of the millennium have moved teachers within a school and school users to more intensive coordination than before. Non-accredited textbooks and other books can only be used with the approval of the School Board, or in the absence of a school board, of the Parents and Students Associations. Schools must familiarize parents (and students of age) with the list of textbooks and allow them to declare whether they want to buy all of the books on the list or obtain some of them from other sources (e.g. second hand).

5.6.3. Digital contents storage

At its current stage School Net Digital Knowledge Base is a digital learning content management system. It will be complemented by accessories, to create a learning management system with many possibilities for collaborative learning. The new system is now being tested. Merging the two functions may lead to a joint supply of educational content and up-to-date devices. School Net Digital Knowledge Base contains digitalized teaching materials of general knowledge subjects for grades 7–12. The system offers sessions incorporating one or more lessons, contents for homeworks, and for classroom use in 5-45-minute electronic blocks. The material organizer module allows users to create their own materials from the centrally developed and professionally approved core materials and user-generated new components. The teaching- learning process is supported by examples, animation, demo clips supplementary databases, background information, methodological support and lesson plans.

5.7. Programmes and funds for development

Development funds and programmes have played a vital role in the renewal of public education. In this respect the structural funds of the EU are of particular importance, as they are involved in the upgrading of both the content and the infrastructure of education in Hungary.

5.7.1. County public foundations for the development of education

County public foundations for the development of education have been in existence since 1996. In 2003 their tasks were expanded to include promotion of a competency-based content regulation system, county development and quality management programmes, supporting the introduction of Measures 2.1 and 3.1 of the Human Resource Development Operative Programme, and promotion of the renewal of vocational training. In recent years allocations to the county public foundations from the national budget have stagnated around 2,000 million forints.

5.7.2. Public Foundation for the Modernization of School Education

The goals of Public Foundation for the Modernization of School Education (Közoktatási Modernizációs Alapítvány, KOMA) are set to renew the content of public education. Accordingly, between 2003 and 2005 the Foundation invited projects that focused on coordinated modernization of content and competency-based development. Almost 3500 projects were submitted and the Public Foundation for the Modernization of School Education awarded funds amounting to about 457 million forints. This is about the same amount as in the previous period (2001–2002) but much less than in the period 1997–1999. In 2005 the Foundation for Public Education was established and acts as the Foundation's legal successor.

5.7.3. The Soros Foundation

The Soros Foundation celebrated its 20th anniversary in 2004. Over the past two decades it contributed 150 million dollars, or almost 30 billion forints, to building the institutions of an open society in Hungary. With Hungary's integration into the EU the Foundation accomplished its mission as the changeover was fully completed. From 2005 no new projects were launched and by the end of 2006 current contractual obligations will be wrapped up. The Hungarian Soros Foundation will cease on 31 December 2007.

5.7.4. Programmes of the European Union

After integration into the EU Hungary's participation in European programmes reached a new stage. Earlier programmes have been enlarged and become more dynamic, networking have been strengthened. The level of utilization of the Socrates and Leonardo schemes of the European Commission has been over 96% for years.

5.7.5. Educational development programmes under the National Development Plan (NDP)

Measures of the Human Resource Development Operative Programme

Measure 2.1:
Ensuring equal opportunities for disadvantaged students in the education system

This Measure is aimed at creating an integrated educational environment that provides high-quality education for children at a disadvantage, Roma children and children with special educational needs. It supports mainstreaming and related education and training programmes as well as the training of teachers on inclusion. Support is also extended to antidiscrimination activities that help identify, explore and eradicate segregation and other forms of negative discrimination in education.

Furthermore, the Measure contributes to the establishment, operation and extension of an inclusive school network so that SEN children can have access to services meeting their special needs and skills near their home. (See also Chapter 9.)

Measure 3.1:
Development of skills and competencies necessary for lifelong learning

The Measure is aimed at promoting the development of skills and competencies in pre-school, primary and secondary education through further training of teachers and other education professionals, and by the propagation of competency-based education.

The Measure supports the development of basic skills and competencies, basic communication skills in foreign languages, social, life and environmental competencies, basic ICT skills and basic career development competencies.

The Measure supports competency-based education at the level of institutions. This includes adaptation of educational programmes and methodologies to local needs. Parallel with the development of competency-based education attention is paid to the quality of education, therefore the involvement of quality enhancement skills and related training of educational specialists and institution managers are also supported.

Measure 3.2:
Developing the content, methodology and structure of vocational training

The goal of this Measure is to promote the development of an efficient, multi-purpose and multi-function modern educational and training system that provides initial, additional and further vocational training for young people and adults, a system that can be adapted to changes in the labour market. In this context, qualifications for the trades in the National Register of Vocational Qualifications are being upgraded in terms of content and methodology to bring them in line with labour market needs. In two trade groups a flexible modular training system is being developed that allows the transfer of knowledge acquired earlier. To promote the regional integration of vocational training and its adaptation to regional labour demands, 16 multi-functional regional integrated vocational training centres were created, and efforts have been taken to involve other economic stakeholders in the programmes.

Measure 4.1:
Development of the infrastructure of education and training

Complex development of the education system is indispensable for developing knowledge that is suited to the needs of the labour market. Contents development needed to this end is only possible if the appropriate physical conditions are available. The Measure supports the renovation and reconstruction of buildings and related acquisition of hardware and other devices in conformity with the requirements of the 21st century. It envisions to improve the infrastructure of regional integrated vocational training centres and institutions (vocational training schools and vocational secondary schools) that provide modular training and are capable of adapting to the demands of the labour market. It also promotes infrastructure development in higher educational institutions and their dormitories.

Measure of the Regional Development Operative Programme (RDOP)

Measure 2.3:
Development of the infrastructure of pre-school and primary educational institutions

This Measure is aimed at developing pre-school and general school infrastructure with a view to easing the differences in the quality of education in backward micro-regions, with special regard to villages with a large Roma and underprivileged population. The Measure encompasses the development of infrastructure related to education and community tasks, creation of the material conditions necessary for the regular application of ICT, creating the infrastructure for leisure activities and community functions of schools, and purchase of devices needed for improving the cost effectiveness of education.